Carbon is one of those elements that dates as far back in history as mankind can remember. Since ancient times, carbon was known in its forms: charcoal and soot. The use of carbon has been practiced by humans since long before it actually was discovered as an element. Ancient people used carbon in various forms

The early 19th century saw several discoveries in carbon science, considering diamond and graphite as allotropes of carbon. Such a property became important for carbon: showing that one element could exist in different forms with very different properties. By 1985, fullerenes or "buckyballs" were discovered, leading the known forms of pure carbon into an even greater shape. This spurs further research on nanostructures called carbon nanotubes and graphene in late 20th and early 21st century. These new carbon structures have industrialized materials science by further providing great strength, electrical conductivity, and other unique properties unforeseen previously. Today, carbon is one of the cornerstones in organic chemistry, biology, and materials science-essential to life on Earth and to advanced technological applications that range from electronics to medical devices.

Properties:

Allotropes: There are a number of carbon allotropes that exist, including diamond, graphite, graphene, fullerenes, and carbon nanotubes-all have different structures and properties. Diamond is extremely hard with high thermal conductivity, while graphite is soft, slippery, and an excellent conductor of electricity.

Atomic Number: The atomic number of carbon is 6. It has a very versatile bonding capability with its four valence electrons, which are able to make stable covalent bonds with many other elements, including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and itself.

Hardness: Varies greatly among allotropes; diamond is one of the hardest known substances while graphite is soft and slippery due to the weak van der Waal forces between layers.

Electrical Conductivity: Graphite and graphene are very good electrical conductors, but diamond is an electrical insulator. This difference in their electrical conductivity makes carbon useful in both electrical devices and in heat insulation.

Thermal Conductivity: Diamond is the best conductor of thermal energy among all the materials and hence finds applications in heat dissipation. Graphite also conducts heat well along its layers.

Density: The allotropes differ in density in that diamond is the denser, approximately 3.51 g/cm³, and graphite less dense, about 2.2 g/cm³, since the atoms are two-dimensional in the graphite form.

Chemical Stability: Carbon is quite stable and resistant to corrosion at room temperatures. It reacts with oxygen at higher temperatures to form either carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide.

Reactivity: Carbon is a rather inert element at ordinary temperature; yet it forms a very great number of compounds, both organic and inorganic-for example, carbides. Strength and Flexibility

Optical Properties: Diamond is transparent and of high refractive index, therefore highly valued as a gemstone and also in cutting tools. Graphite is opaque and black.

Applications:

Organic chemistry and biochemistry: The organic molecules which form the basis of proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids all contain carbon as the fundamental part. It is thus said that carbon forms the very origin of life and all living mechanisms known.

Diamond: The uses are in appliances for cutting due to its hardness and thermal conduction with precision applications in many industries but also valued in electronics; there is also a use as gemstones for jewelry purposes.

These include applications in pencils, lubricants, batteries, and as a moderator in nuclear reactors, due to the lubricating properties and electrical conductivity of graphite.

Graphene is used in advanced electronics, energy storage, and composite materials for excellent strength, conductivity, and flexibility.

Carbon Nanotubes are applied in nanotechnology, advanced composites, and electronics owing to their strength and electrical properties.

Batteries: Of the carbon materials, graphite is widely used in lithium-ion and other variants due to its conductivity and stability. Supercapacitors

Filtration: Active carbon finds use in water and air filtration systems because of its surface area and adsorption properties to remove contaminants and odors from the media.

Catalysis: Carbon-based catalysts and supports find use in a number of chemical processes and reactions.

Carbon Fiber Composites: These are applied in aerospace, automotive, and sporting goods owing to the high strength-to-weight ratio and rigidity.

Carbon Black: It is utilized as a color pigment in inks, paints, and rubber products because of its color and reinforcement attributes.

Conductive Materials: Graphene and carbon nanotubes have been applied to advanced electronic devices, transistors, and sensors with high conductivity and very small size.